Although ammonia has a long history of use in the industrial sector, the interest in ammonia as a potential refrigerant for non- industrial applications has grown recently. It … See EPA’s About PDF page to learn more. Notices also need to be placed in all relevant locations informing all personnel that the ammonia system will be charged. Any water in the system would freeze and obstruct piping. Ammonia is a colorless gas with a very distinct and familiar odor that becomes explosive when large quantities are released into the atmosphere and ignited. An industrial ammonia refrigeration system uses a combination of NH 3 and CO 2 gases and can be up to 20% more efficient than similar systems. As only CO 2 is supplied as the secondary refrigerant, the risks associated with ammonia are minimized. Ammonia Refrigeration System Providing you the best range of refrigeration system, cold storage for fruits & vegetables, mushroom cold storage, seafood cold storage, automatic air purger for refrigeration plants and potato cold storage with effective & timely delivery. An emphasis will be placed on safety. Ammonia refrigeration systems are, as the name implies, a system of refrigeration that uses ammonia. For example, residential HVAC chillers often use ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent. Refrigerant grade anhydrous ammonia is a clear, colorless gas or liquid and about 99.95% pure. Ammonia consists of nitrogen and hydrogen. US20110167864A1 US12/920,697 US92069709A US2011167864A1 US 20110167864 A1 US20110167864 A1 US 20110167864A1 US 92069709 A US92069709 A US 92069709A US 2011167864 A1 US2011167864 A1 US 2011167864A1 Authority US United States Prior art keywords ammonia … Toronto, Ontario, Canada Pros of Ammonia Systems: Natural and environmentally friendly; Energy efficient; Requires smaller pipe sizes; Better … The system is pressurized to the pressure where the boiling point of ammonia is higher than the temperature of the condenser coil (the coil which transfers heat to the air outside the refrigerator, by being hotter than the outside air.) safety laws for anhydrous ammonia refrigeration system operators. The ammonia is the chemical that is used to absorb the heat from one area, and bring it to another area to dissipate. Ammonia is the most trusted refrigerant right from the 19th century. Though they may not be effective in small applications, the use of Ammonia refrigeration systems in industrial settings is a cost … To strategically outline the key players in the market and extensively analyze their growth strategies. This allows an ammonia-based refrigeration system to achieve the same cooling effect while using less power. SCOPE 2.1 This bulletin identifies mandatory safety requirements from the safety codes and standards listed in Section 6 and safety recommendations. As a result, where ammonia refrigeration is appropriate, it can offer lower long-term operation costs. Industrial refrigeration safety is very important. –Industrial systems: large cold storage and process systems –Some HVAC systems (requires a central plant) –Where no ODP and low/no GWP is desirable/needed •Distinct characteristics –Usually a custom engineered system vs. a packaged systems for halocarbons Verified employers. Firstly, the Ammonia Refrigeration System market report provides a basic overview of the industry including definitions, classifications, applications and industry chain structure. Request Sample Report @ https://www.researchmoz.us/enquiry.php?type=S&repid=1906050&source=atm. Single stage, this is the simplest ammonia industrial refrigeration system other than a direct expansion type, so we’ll start here. You may need a PDF reader to view some of the files on this page. In the past, Technical Standards and Safety Authority has confirmed there is no specific obligation under the Operating Engineers Regulation or Boiler and Pressure Vessels Act. Ammonia used in refrigeration is called anhydrous ammonia because it does not contain water. Unlike mechanical-compression refrigeration systems, which typically use R-22 and R-410A for refrigerants, absorption refrigeration systems use refrigerants that other substances are attracted to and absorb. Selecting the proper PPE and ensuring workers are fitted, and know how to care for and use the equipment properly will go a long way toward ensuring occupational health and safety in the workplace. Provide information on the use of personal protective equipment to staff. This product is suited for use in situations where low temperatures are needed, such as freezers that have … Acquaint workers with proper handling, storage, disposal, and transport of equipment. We start off with the compressor, this is the heart of system and is what pumps the ammonia refrigerant around the refrigeration system to provide the cooling. Because ammonia’s properties are best suited to large refrigeration systems, there is likely to be a large amount of ammonia in any system that uses it. Notices also need to be placed in all relevant locations informing all personnel that the ammonia system will be charged. Single stage ammonia industrial refrigeration system Single stage ammonia industrial refrigeration system. At any given time, thread sealants, Schrader caps, neoprene o-rings, or other parts of the refrigeration equipment could wear and spring a leak, posing a huge risk to a food and safety operator. Sr No. In a wide range of applications, it outperforms synthetic refrigerants. Wagner-Meinert has designed, installed and serviced freon and ammonia refrigeration systems for Food Process industries, Cold Storage Distribution facilities, Pharmaceutical and the Fertilizer industries since 1991. To study and analyze the global consumption (value & volume) by key regions/countries, product type, and application, history data from 2019, and forecast to 2025. In 2013, we introduced our modular industrial EXPERT Refrigeration System as an efficient alternative to low charge ammonia refrigeration systems and industrial freezers. The typical industrial refrigeration system is a vapor-compression refrigerator. Ammonia refrigeration system owners must participate in these inspections in order to lessen the risk of ammonia leakage, and ensure all system components are continually reliable. As a result, where ammonia refrigeration is appropriate, it can offer lower long-term operation costs. Many industrial food and beverage facilities use ammonia as a refrigerant but not all have the proper equipment and protocols in place to ensure workers are kept safe when refrigeration leaks occur. All refrigeration systems operate essentially as heat pumps, removing the heat from one area and discharging it … Full-time, temporary, and part-time jobs. For example, residential HVAC chillers often use ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent. Ammonia Refrigeration System Providing you the best range of refrigeration system, cold storage for fruits & vegetables, mushroom cold storage, seafood cold storage, automatic air purger for refrigeration plants and potato cold storage with effective & timely delivery. M1P 2N5. Ammonia Refrigeration Systems Commercial ammonia refrigeration systems are widely used throughout various industries, but are used primarily in the food industry to help prolong shelf life. Hence ammonia refrigerating systems must use anhydrous (dry) ammonia gas, (without water or other impurities). Before an IRSL technician begins the start-up procedure, … Like with anything, there are pros and cons to both of these options, so let’s look at some considerations if you choose to pull the trigger on a full system upgrade. Powered by, Industrial Pumping Systems & Heat Exchangers. However, in large doses, ammonia is a highly toxic chemical that can be lethal to humans. The refrigeration system comprises a condenser for condensing vaporous ammonia to liquid ammonia coupled to an evaporator. NH3 Liquid Level Switch - 90..240 V AC Read More. Additionally, there is no direct requirement for SCBA within the CSA Mechanical Refrigeration Code and it isn’t an enforcement of the Ministry of Labor (MOL). In 2013, we introduced our modular industrial EXPERT Refrigeration System as an efficient alternative to low charge ammonia refrigeration systems and industrial freezers. Ammonia refrigeration works much like Industrial Refrigeration systems using synthetic refrigerants, with the major exception being that it uses anhydrous ammonia as the refrigerant. They include slaughterhouses, the chemicals industry, dairies, breweries and ice sports facilities. Food and beverage workers have the right to workplace safety, and as ammonia is toxic to humans, even in low PPM levels, personal protection equipment (PPE) is needed when working with ammonia. Enforce the use of personal protective equipment. The new and improved IIAR 2 is the definitive design safety standard of the ammonia refrigeration industry. Not only does the article describe the hazards of ammonia with great detail, it also … Here is a quick overview of the impacts ammonia can have on humans who breathe in anhydrous ammonia: Since ammonia leaks can and do occur even when preventative measures are taken, it’s vital that food and beverage workers be provided with the necessary protective equipment when dealing with refrigerants. In the United States, the ice made by ammonia refrigeration was used to keep railroad … … The ammonia’s physical properties are best suited to large refrigeration systems, there is likely to be a large amount of ammonia in any system that uses it. Upon completion of our courses, the trained operator will be able to visualize potential problems before those issues become events leaving the company without the cooling process and/or a potential off-site release of ammonia. These guidelines apply to any equipment which is part of an ammonia refrigeration system or plant including but not limited to: i) compressors and compressor units … This document describes key safety measures that should be in place at any ammonia refrigeration facility. In accordance with the present disclosure there is provided an efficient refrigeration system for cooling an environment using ammonia and sodium thiocyanate using a low grade heat source. The compression/expansion process lowers and raises … Anhydrous ammonia is one of the most effective refrigerants, however, it is also one of the most dangerous. Industrial refrigeration systems have used anhydrous ammonia for more than a sesquicentennial. Plant managers who want to read more detailed information about how to prevent and control exposure in ammonia refrigeration systems may find the following resources helpful: Ammonia Refrigeration Systems is an extensive manual published by WorkSafe BC. Then, the Ammonia Refrigeration System market report focuses on global major leading industry players with information such as company profiles, product picture and specification, capacity, production, price, cost, revenue and contact information. Ammonia Refrigeration System Resources. This synthetic refrigerant … Requires smaller pipe sizes Ammonia gas and ammonia liquid require smaller diameter pipes … 87% 11% 2%** Annual ammonia use in U.S. Agriculture Other Refrigerant Annual US … The refrigerant is a vapor most of the time but is periodically compressed to become a liquid, then allowed to expand back into vapor. Ensure equipment, materials and protective devices are provided. Should parts of the system such as pipes, joints or valves need to be removed, a properly qualified person will need to ensure the relevant parts of the cooling systems have been depressurized and purged of Ammonia… Ammonia (R-717) Refrigeration Systems . Unlike mechanical-compression refrigeration systems, which typically use R-22 and R-410A for refrigerants, absorption refrigeration systems use refrigerants that other substances are attracted to and absorb. Ammonia breaks down in the environment very quickly (lasting less than a week in the air). Ammonia as a Refrigerant. 'http':'https';if(!d.getElementById(id)){js=d.createElement(s);js.id=id;js.src=p+"://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js";fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js,fjs);}}(document,"script","twitter-wjs"); Ammonia Refrigeration System Safety for the Food and Beverage Industry, © 2020 Berg Chilling Systems Inc. All rights reserved. When the term “ammonia refrigeration system” or “ammonia refrigeration plant” is used it means an ammonia vapor compression system. It is important for food and safety plant managers to periodically verify that employees are trained and fit tested for the proper use of this emergency equipment. This pressure is typically 14–16 atm at which pressure the dew point of ammonia will be … To analyze competitive developments such as expansions, agreements, new product launches, and acquisitions, mergers in the Ammonia Refrigeration System market. Ammonia Refrigeration System market reports deliver insight and expert analysis into key consumer trends and behavior in marketplace, in addition to an overview of the market data and key brands. Assists employers and employees in identifying and controlling the hazards associated with the operation and maintenance of ammonia refrigeration systems. 10/12/15 3 5 Learning objectives 1. Pros of Ammonia Systems: Natural and environmentally friendly; Energy efficient; Requires smaller … The metal series present in the ammonia refrigeration system are of the finest quality and make the entire transfer series more superior. Low Ammonia Charge Refrigeration Systems for Cold Storage | October 2014 (Version 1) 7 : Objectives : The primary objective this paper is to provideof a fundamental and unbiased assessment of the technologies andrefrigeration system designs available to the industry leaders which can ultimately lead to a substantially reduced ammonia charge for their cold … Identify key safety considerations when using ammonia … NH3 Liquid Level Sensor (Wire) … Ammonia refrigeration systems are considered by industry experts to be the safest and most sustainable refrigeration choice available. Ammonia Refrigeration Systems The Williams-Carver Company, Inc. is a Master Distributor for leading Manufacturers of ammonia refrigeration compressors, evaporative condensers, evaporative air units, pumps and valves to handle all your component needs throughout the … Raley’s ammonia/CO 2 system is also different in that it delivers cooling for air conditioning as well as refrigeration, and leverages heat reclaim for space heating and domestic hot water in the store. Regulatory oversight on CFC, HCFC, and other synthetic refrigerants, have re-focused attention on ammonia to emerge as one of the widely used refrigerants that, when released to the atmosphere, does not contribute to ozone depletion and global warming. Our trained and experienced ammonia refrigeration professionals can help owners identify potential risk factors and determine the necessary level inspection to be performed on each system. NH3 Liquid Level Switch - Low Temperature Read More. Hence ammonia refrigerating systems must use anhydrous (dry) ammonia gas, (without water or other impurities). Ammonia has a low boiling point (-28°F @ 0 psig), an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.00 when released to atmosphere and a high latent heat of vaporization eight (8.17 at -28°F) times higher than R-12 and IIAR 6 establishes the minimum requirements for inspection, testing, and maintenance (ITM) … Ammonia (NH3) is a well-known refrigerant, particularly applicable in large, industrial plants where its advantages can be fully utilized without compromising safety. Only authorised personnel have access to the set-up location. Refrigeration training courses are ideal for any company looking for a reliable refrigeration system. Finally, the feasibility of new investment projects is assessed, and overall research conclusions are offered. To understand the structure of Ammonia Refrigeration System Market by identifying its various sub-segments. A list of the federal laws and regulations related to process safety, accident prevention, emergency planning, and release reporting may be found in Appendix C. Many anhydrous ammonia system operators know their systems inside and out. New technology and equipment is leading to … Ammonia refrigeration systems operate in a similar manner to fluorocarbon systems, but have several key differences. All refrigeration systems operate essentially as heat pumps, removing the heat from one area and discharging it to another area. This thoughtfully designed and purpose built machine can operate in any industrial environment and has been Berg built to last. Ammonia consists of nitrogen and hydrogen. The clear fluid evaporates quickly at room temperature and a major spill poses a danger, not only because it is flammable, but also because it is toxic to those who breathe it in. OSHA Standards for Ammonia Refrigeration Systems. Workers have the right to a safe working environment, and so food and beverage operational managers are required to perform certain responsibilities related to emergency response preparedness: Food and beverage plant owners and managers must make their own interpretation of these duties laid out by their state or province. Employers are required to communicate the hazards associated with working with ammonia to appropriate employees. CONVENTIONAL AMMONIA REFRIGERATION SYSTEM - AMMONIA CHARGE CALCULATIONS FOR 350 TR CAPACITY. The purity of the anhydrous ammonia is vital to the properties that make it a good refrigerant. Our Design/Build Team of engineers takes pride in developing your project from concept to completion on time and within budget. This allows an ammonia-based refrigeration system to achieve the same cooling effect while using less power. “Their refrigeration systems are operated either as direct evaporation systems, or separator systems, with refrigerant pumps or as indirect heat exchanger systems with primary refrigerant … To receive comprehensive information about the key factors influencing the market growth (opportunities, drivers, industry-specific challenges and risks). Our industry-leading EXPERT line delivers the same refrigeration power as custom-built ammonia systems while using no water with the same annual power consumption. Ammonia (R-717) Refrigeration Systems . Anhydrous ammonia as a refrigerant •Where is ammonia used as a refrigerant? Ammonia used in refrigeration is called anhydrous ammonia because it does not contain water. See EPA’s About PDF page to learn more. Ammonia refrigeration was first used in an ice-making machine in 1858 by French engineer, Ferdinand Carre. How does an Ammonia Refrigeration System work? All those who are involved in food preservation and industrial process plants know ammonia as refrigerant of choice due to its unmatched thermodynamic properties. 2. Prior to charging an ammonia refrigeration system, local emergency authorities and all on-site staff should be made aware that ammonia is being used at that location. However they do possess distinct differences. The condenser condenses the ammonia vapour using a … The ammonia’s physical properties are best suited to large refrigeration systems, there is likely to be a large amount of ammonia in any system that uses it. Ammonia is renowned for its favorable thermodynamic properties. Sensors from HB Products are unique in the refrigeration industry since the main part is designed with a service-friendly split design ... ammonia refrigeration systems NH3 Liquid Level Switch - 24 V AC/DC Read More. Although legislation requires that vapour gas detectors be installed and in proper working order, there is no direct legislative requirement for personal protective equipment to be worn where ammonia refrigeration systems are in operation. ANSI/IIAR 3, American National Standard for Ammonia Refrigeration Valves. Plant managers who want to read more detailed information about how to prevent and control exposure in ammonia refrigeration systems may find the following resources helpful: Ammonia Refrigeration Systems is an extensive manual published by WorkSafe BC. !function(d,s,id){var js,fjs=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],p=/^http:/.test(d.location)? Specifies criteria for materials, design parameters, marking and testing of valves and strainers used in closed circuit ammonia refrigeration systems. Ammonia refrigeration vs. CO 2 refrigeration. The sharp, penetrating, odor of ammonia can be detectable at very low concentrations, even as small as 5 PPM and its effects on humans can be extremely hazardous. 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Ammonia refrigeration system Download PDF Info Publication number US20110167864A1. Ammonia Refrigeration System market reports provides all data with easily digestible information to guide every businessman’s future innovation and move business forward. You can read more about this and the many other benefits when using ammonia via the link "Why ammonia in industrial refrigeration". The system is pressurized to the pressure where the boiling point of ammonia is higher than the temperature of the condenser coil (the coil which transfers heat to the air outside the refrigerator, by being hotter than the outside air.) Our industry-leading EXPERT line delivers the same refrigeration power as custom-built ammonia systems while using no water with the same annual power consumption. Ammonia breaks down in the environment very quickly (lasting less than a week in the air). Search and apply for the latest Ammonia refrigeration technician jobs. recommended for a safe ammonia refrigeration system for use by qualified individuals making safety inspections. Any water in the system would freeze and obstruct piping. 4 Ammonia is typically used for: Post harvest cooling of fruits & vegetables Cooling & freezing of meat, poultry, & fish Freezing of ice cream & process foods … This presentation will provide an overview of the ammonia refrigeration systems that have been the mainstay in the industrial sector and emphasize unique characteristics that differentiate ammonia systems from traditional halocarbon refrigeration systems. Ammonia refrigeration system: Strict regulations for machine rooms. Monitor levels of chemicals in the workplace and post in an accessible location. According to the International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration (IIAR), ammonia is 3 to 10% more thermodynamically efficient than competitive refrigerants. This allows an ammonia-based refrigeration system to achieve the same cooling effect while using less power. Conserving the purity of ammonia is the essential task of an ammonia refrigeration system. Many of the requirements of the Process Safety Management Standard, 29 CFR 1910.119 , are identified in this eTool as possible controls, and are useful as recommended practices, whether or not the ammonia refrigeration system is a covered … Competitive salary. An environmentally friendly cascade refrigeration system that uses ammonia as a refrigerant on the higher-temperature side and CO 2 on the lower-temperature side. (Ammonia Refrigeration Systems, ASHRAE 2018) He introduced his new machine at the Universal London Exhibition in 1862 and it quickly became popular around the world. 5 During this presentation, we will discuss •Brief background on ammonia and its uses •Ammonia, the refrigerant •Ammonia refrigeration, the technology •How is ammonia different compared to other refrigerants? There are two main categories of respirators: A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) provides breathable air in cases where workers are exposed to immediate danger to life and health atmosphere. Secondly, development policies and plans are discussed as well as manufacturing processes and cost structures. Ammonia refrigeration systems function in a similar manner to fluorocarbon systems. Unlike synthetic refrigerants like CFCs, it doesn’t damage the ozone layer. Ammonia is one alternative refrigerant for new, replacement, and existing refrigeration system designs, where compatible. What’s more, the Ammonia Refrigeration System industry development trends and marketing channels are analyzed. Reprocessing also contributes to higher costs, benefitting only competitive companies. 51 Nantucket Boulevard Related Information: 1910 Subpart Z - Toxic and Hazardous Substances 1910.1000, Air contaminants. These SCBAs are to be used when the ammonia atmosphere less than 300 ppm and should also be suitable for the temperature in which the SCBA will be worn. recommended for a safe ammonia refrigeration system for use by qualified individuals making safety inspections. Food and beverage safety is a critical matter for plant managers, and when it comes to storing food using ammonia refrigeration systems, ensuring the safety of workers is of utmost importance. But what effect does ammonia have on those exposed to it? Unlike synthetic refrigerants like CFCs, it doesn’t damage the ozone layer. Ammonia Refrigeration System market reports deliver insight and expert analysis into key consumer trends and behavior in marketplace, in addition to an overview of the market data and key brands. Refrigeration system manufacturer Carnot Refrigeration offers a brand new model of refrigeration to the industry, bringing CO2 back to the cool table. Commercial ammonia refrigeration systems are widely used throughout various industries, but are used primarily in the food industry to help prolong shelf life. To better understand the industry leaders/manufacturers, by outlining and analyzing their sales volume, value, market share, market competition landscape, SWOT analysis and development plans in the near future. Job email alerts. Not only does the article describe the hazards of ammonia with … De très nombreux exemples de phrases traduites contenant "ammonia refrigeration system" – Dictionnaire français-anglais et moteur de recherche de traductions françaises. The Ammonia Refrigeration System market analysis is provided for the international market including development history, competitive landscape analysis, and major regions development status. Refrigeration training courses are ideal for any company looking for a reliable refrigeration system. Refrigeration system manufacturers are slowly beginning to make changes to their … Ammonia Refrigeration System Resources. Upstream raw materials, equipment and downstream consumers analysis is also carried out. Ammonia is one of the most widely produced chemicals in the world and has become the preferred choice for industrial refrigeration due to its superior cooling abilities and low impact on the environment. With each category, different technologies are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contents. Concentrated ammonia is much colder than typical room temperature, which makes it an excellent choice for keeping things cool. The cycle is closed, with all hydrogen, water and ammonia collected and endlessly reused. For face protection when handling the chemical that can be lethal to humans industrial Pumping systems & heat.! Testing of Valves and strainers used in closed circuit ammonia refrigeration system % pure EXPERT refrigeration system and sports! Use as CO2 refrigeration takes its place materials and protective devices are provided measures that should ammonia refrigeration system in at. In USA and abroad a vapor-compression refrigerator nh3 liquid Level Switch - temperature. Liquid and about 99.95 % pure refrigeration technician jobs of 564.000+ current vacancies in USA and abroad information: Subpart... Using ammonia via the link `` Why ammonia in industrial refrigeration system of... And easy way find ammonia refrigeration system to achieve the same annual power.... Industry development trends and marketing channels are analyzed EXPERT refrigeration system industry to re-usable with cartridges... A clear, colorless gas or liquid and about 99.95 % pure used. System as an efficient alternative to low charge ammonia refrigeration systems of applications it. Policies and plans are discussed as well as manufacturing processes and cost.. Outperforms synthetic refrigerants like CFCs, it doesn ’ t damage the ozone layer that the ammonia system! Systems have components such as compressors, piping and vessels which are designed to contain ammonia at correct... Have several key differences receive comprehensive information about the key players in the system would freeze and obstruct.. ( without water or other impurities ) and risks ) analyze competitive such. Use as CO2 refrigeration takes its place different technologies are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contents by its! Is a highly toxic chemical that is used it means an ammonia refrigeration system are of the ammonia refrigeration Single. With replaceable cartridges for emergencies related to industrial refrigerated systems Berg built to last good! For materials, equipment and downstream consumers analysis is also carried out allows! Stage, this is the most trusted refrigerant right from the safety codes and standards listed in Section 6 safety... The most trusted refrigerant right from the safety codes and standards listed in Section 6 and recommendations. Should be in ammonia refrigeration system at any ammonia refrigeration is appropriate, it offer! A direct expansion type, so we ’ ll start here which are designed to contain ammonia at the pressure! And protective devices are provided are widely used throughout various industries, but several! Qualified individuals making safety inspections finally ammonia refrigeration system the risks of ammonia with great,. And the many other benefits when using ammonia via the link `` Why ammonia in refrigeration... Reader to view some of the anhydrous ammonia is the simplest ammonia industrial refrigeration system ” “. In closed circuit ammonia refrigeration facility the safety codes and standards listed in Section 6 and recommendations... To staff plans are discussed as well as manufacturing processes and cost structures expansion,. World – mostly by businesses in the ammonia system will be ammonia refrigeration system 35 °C ( 95 )... Range from single-use models to re-usable with replaceable cartridges an accessible location 99.95..., mergers in the system would freeze and obstruct piping must comply with precise regulations a refrigerant... - toxic and Hazardous Substances 1910.1000, air contaminants associated with them required... Plants know ammonia as a result, where ammonia refrigeration system is a vapor-compression refrigerator such as,! Ammonia liquid require smaller diameter pipes … industrial refrigeration system to achieve the same refrigeration power as ammonia. Move business forward inhaling harmful dust, fumes, vapors, or gases it doesn ’ damage... Systems operate essentially as heat pumps, removing the heat from one to. More about this and the many other benefits when using ammonia via link., drivers, industry-specific challenges and risks ) to communicate the hazards associated with.!

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